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The paper presents post-mortem analysis of commercial LiFePO4 battery cells, which are aged at 55 °C and − 20 °C using dynamic current profiles and different depth of discharges (DOD). Post-mortem analysis focuses on the structure of the electrodes using atomic force microscopy (AFM) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and the chemical composition changes using energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM-EDX) and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS). The results show that ageing at lower DOD results in higher capacity fading compared to higher DOD cycling. The anode surface aged at 55 °C forms a dense cover on the graphite flakes, while at the anode surface aged at − 20 °C lithium plating and LiF crystals are observed. As expected, Fe dissolution from the cathode and deposition on the anode are observed for the ageing performed at 55 °C, while Fe dissolution and deposition are not observed at − 20 °C. Using atomic force microscopy (AFM), the surface conductivity is examined, which shows only minor degradation for the cathodes aged at − 20 °C. The cathodes aged at 55 °C exhibit micrometer size agglomerates of nanometer particles on the cathode surface. The results indicate that cycling at higher SOC ranges is more detrimental and low temperature cycling mainly affects the anode by the formation of plated Li.
Electrochemical strain microscopy (ESM) is a powerful atomic force microscopy (AFM) mode for the investigation of ion dynamics and activities in energy storage materials. Here we compare the changes in commercial LiFePO4 cathodes due to ageing and its influence on the measured ESM signal. Additionally, the ESM signal dynamics are analysed to generate characteristic time constants of the diffusion process, induced by a dc-voltage pulse, which changes the ionic concentration in the material volume under the AFM tip. The ageing of the cathode is found to be governed by a decrease of the electrochemical activity and the loss of available lithium for cycling, which can be stored in the cathode.